They founded the "Martyrs' Movement" to stop Islamization, and Arabic accounted for 8% of Spanish... The story of the subjugation of the European conqueror to the influence of the Andalusian victor

“My brothers in religion find great pleasure in reading Arab poetry and their stories, and they study the doctrines of the people of religion and Muslim philosophers, not in order to refute them and overrule them, but in order to acquire from that a beautiful and correct Arabic style!! The Latin that was written on the holy gospels? And who - besides the clergy - studies the writings of the Apostles and the relics of the prophets and messengers? What a pity!"

These are words written by the Andalusian priest Alvaro de córdoba (died 240 AH / 854 AD) with the sense of the clergyman who watches with some annoyance the fall of the “overwhelmed” children of his culture into the whims of the “dominant” Arab Islamic culture; If we use the famous expression of Ibn Khaldun (d. 808 AH / 1406 AD) in the 'Introduction'. This text/document written by Reverend Alvaro reveals - regardless of the bitter spirit that spreads between its lines and radiates from it - about the vast horizon of the Andalusian Islamic state throughout extended periods of its rule.

This text confirms that the experience of Andalusia was not only a unique experience in tolerance and pluralism; This is because the matter went beyond providing freedoms of all kinds to enabling human diversity within this experience from the tools of civilization without discrimination, and there is no evidence for this that the most important philosopher in the history of the Jews, Moses Maimonides (d. 601 AH / 1204 AD), known to the West as “Maimonides” explained The Ten Commandments" - which Jews and Christians attribute to the Prophet of God Moses, peace be upon him - in Andalusia, where he was born, raised and educated.

The truth is that this philosophy of empowerment was behind the adoption by non-Muslims of Islamic customs and the Arabic language, as they admired the Arab culture and raced to learn it until many of their writers, scholars and even their princes excelled, and some of them assumed the highest ranks and positions in the Islamic state in Andalusia. This is in addition to another reason that prompted them to do so; It is the phenomenon of controversy and debate councils in the sciences of religions that were held in the clubs and palaces of Andalusia and turned into forums for discussion and dialogue, and thus Arab etiquette became a subject of interest, but for the sake of challenge, not admiration.

It is not hidden that in both cases, some Andalusian clergymen - Jews and Christians - felt the danger of Arabization, whose paths extend and expand among the people of their religion, as movements emerged to oppose Arabization efforts in an effort to preserve the self from melting.

Perhaps the contemporary reader who is under the sway of Westernization understands the feelings of those priests and rabbis;

Of course, with a big difference in pluralism and tolerance, it remains - whatever the exceptions are - the preponderance of Muslims.

And if it is not new to write about Andalusia or the lost Paradise;

This article is trying to get close to her and hovering around her mother-in-law with a face that deserves a lot of attention, and it is a reflection on the behavior of the Muslim “victorious” and the different reaction of the “victorious” in religion and tongue, in an era that went tragically and only papers and experience remained of it... but they are papers It tempts renewed flipping and meditation, and an experience that inspires review and remembrance!!

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from the proverbs that were common in Europe saying: “The Pyrenees are the boundary between Europe and Africa,” as well as their saying: “If you cross the Pyrenees (between France and Spain), know that you have entered Africa.” This suggests that Spain and Portugal were influenced by all aspects of Islamic social life prevalent in Andalusia during the Islamic rule, in whole or in part, for eight centuries (92 AH-897 AH / 711-1492 AD), until the Europeans considered it an integral part of North Africa, which grew up and grew on His land - since the Islamic conquest - the Arab-Islamic culture and coexisted with its local cultures.

It is not possible to mention the word “Andalus” without invoking Andalusia’s history and civilizational and scientific glory, which, after its loss, left its shining trail and its rich human heritage. The Muslims and others were able to build a great civilization, which clearly affected the knowledge and customs of the people of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal). Their Spanish and Portuguese languages ​​received a torrent of words of Arabic origin, and even surpassed them to European languages ​​in general.

The great religious tolerance witnessed in the countries of Andalusia during the Islamic rule was the broadest entry for this to the impact that the Arabic language and Islamic culture exercised on the inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula, which first reached the parts of Europe and then later to Latin America during the days of exploration and colonialism. That is why the Spanish orientalist and linguist Julian Ribera (d. 1354 AH / 1935 AD), as quoted by Dr. Fatima Tatah in her research 'Borders and Civilizational Communication in Andalusia': "The coexistence of two peoples for more than eight centuries must create a common language with which they can understand!"

This tolerance led to the emergence of a new class in Andalusian society that was the result of marriage between the indigenous population and Muslims, called the "Muwalids". and later; The “Mozarabic” class appeared, who are Christians who lived among Muslims and started speaking Arabic while preserving their Christian religion. About him Ibn Khaldun - in the 'Introduction' - with "other religious and worldly conditions", and one of the effects of that was the voluntary conversion of many Jews and Christians to Islam.

Here we refer to the agreement of the “Ariola Peace” concluded in the year 94 AH / 713 AD, the leader of the Muslims at the time, Abd al-Aziz bin Musa bin Nusair (d. 97 AH / 716 AD) with the King of the Goths Theodomeru, known in Arabic as “Tadmir bin Abdush” (d. 125 AH / 743 AD), which was The solid basis and later emulated in the consolidation of this great tolerance; The text of the agreement included - as cited by Ibn Abd al-Mun’im al-Himyari (d. 900 AH / 1495 AD) in “The Description of the Island of Andalusia” - that the destruction “was brought down upon the peace, and that he has the covenant of God and the protection of his prophet - may God’s prayers and peace be upon him - not to be presented to him - nor to anyone Of his companions - nor delayed, nor taken away from his property, and that they are not killed, nor taken captive, nor separated between them and their children or their women, nor are they forced into their religion, nor their churches are burned, nor what is worshiped is taken away from his churches, and that is what led to what we stipulated... The text of this treaty was translated by researcher Sanchez Albornoth in his book 'Muslim Spain'.

Let the French historian Gustave Le Bon (d. 1352 AH / 1931 AD) explain to us the depth of this tolerance by saying - in the 'civilization of the Arabs' - that "the Arabs were able to transform Spain materially and culturally in a few centuries, and make it at the head of all European kingdoms, and the conversion of the Arabs to Spain was not limited to On these two matters; rather, they affected the morals of people as well, for they are the ones who taught the Christian peoples - and if you want, say try to teach them - tolerance, which is the most precious human qualities. The Christian Church held in the year 165 AH / 782 AD and the Christian Conference of Cordoba which was held in the year 237 AH / 851 AD, and the many Christian churches that they built during the days of Arab rule are evidence of the Arabs’ respect for the beliefs of the nations that were subject to their authority!!

Andalusian manuscript containing the text "Ariola Peace", which laid the foundations of civilized coexistence in Andalusia at the conquest (social networking sites)

Inspiration and contribution

as a result of the policy of tolerance pursued by Muslims in Andalusia;

Non-Muslims were impressed with the Arabic language and its literature, so they raced to learn it, and many of their writers and scholars excelled in these manners, and some of them assumed the highest ranks and positions in the Islamic state, and this even led them to adopt many of the social customs of Muslims.

One of the ways in which Jews and Christians were affected by the Muslims of Andalusia was that they taught their children the Arabic language and poetry at an early age, and this is due to the fact that Arabic was the language of science and culture for all in Andalusia. Ibn Abd al-Rahman (d. 181 AH / 796 AD), it was the language of the church for the Christians of Andalusia, and they translated the Bible and the texts of prayers into it.

According to Hussein Moanis in 'The Landmarks of the History of Morocco and Andalusia'.

The phenomenon of religious controversy was one of the factors that prompted non-Muslims in Andalusia to learn the Arabic language, culture and Islamic sciences, and therefore the Spanish orientalist Angel Gonzalez Palencia (d. 1368 AH / 1949 AD) - in his book 'The History of Andalusian Thought' - states that "admiration for Arab culture was not The only reason to study the books of Muslims in all cases, but some of them studied it in order to learn and gather evidence to confront Islam and its followers.

One of the most important fruits of this religious tolerance was for non-Muslims to attain a lofty position in the wheels of the Islamic state in Andalusia. So the Andalusian caliphs took non-Muslim trustees in their ruling courts, and among the most famous of these is the Jew Ismail Ibn Al-Nagrilla (d. 448 AH/1055 AD), who was appointed as a powerful minister in the court of the King of Granada, Badis bin Habus al-Sinhaji (d. 465 AH/1074 AD), to the extent that he “hid his owner (= Amir) on the authority of the people and imprisoned him between the pot (= a vessel of wine) and the cup.” According to Ibn Bassam al-Shantarini (d. 542 AH / 1147 AD) in 'Al-Thakhira fi the merits of the people of the island'.

Ibn Hayyan al-Andalusi (d. 469 AH / 1076 AD) - as quoted by him from Lisan al-Din Ibn al-Khatib (d. 776 AH / 1374 AD) in 'Al-Ihtaaat fi Akhbar Granada' - describes Ibn Al-Nagrilla's ability to reach the corner of Al-Arabiya;

He said that he was "a man who wrote with the two pens and took care of the two sciences, had a passion for the Arabic tongue and looked at it, read his books and studied his origins..., and he started writing about his owner in Arabic!"

After the death of Ismail Ibn Al-Nagrela, he was succeeded in his government position by his son Yusef (d. 459 AH/1068 AD), who was on the path of his father in his mastery of Arabic literature.

A variety of participation.

Among the prominent Jews who mastered Arabic was Abu Al-Walid Marwan bin Jinnah Al-Qurtubi (d. about 441 AH/1050AD), who was in the court of the Emir of Zaragoza, al-Muqtadir bin Hood (d. 474 AH/1082 AD). He has several books on Jewish culture written in Arabic.

And the judge and historian Sa’ed Al-Andalusi (d. 462 AH/1071 AD) mentioned him - in “Tabaqat al-Nations” - and said that he was “one of the people who took care of the industry of logic and the expansion of the science of the Arabic and Jewish languages.”

The Jews and Christians imitated the Arabs even in their names, surnames and titles. They used to take both an Arabic and a Hebrew name.

This Muslim of Jewish origin Al-Samwal bin Yahya al-Maghribi (d. about 570 AH / 1174 AD) says - in ‘Exerting the Effort in Charging the Jews’ - about the Jews of Andalusia: “Many of their specialists (= theirs) have an Arabic name other than the Hebrew name derived from it, as The Arabs made the name other than the nickname.

Indeed, the influence of the Jews on the Arabs reached their great interest in Arab poetry, until a sect of them excelled in it, in which the sons of the enemy competed with themselves.

Therefore, Al-Maqri (d. 1041 AH / 1631 AD) - in “Nafh al-Tayyib” - held a study of the Arabic poets of the Jews of Andalusia, in which he included a group of their poems, and he said after some of them: “And this is evidence that the Jews of Andalusia were working with the knowledge of Arabic.”

Among them is the glorified poet Ibrahim bin Sahel Al-Israeli Al-Ishbili (d. 659 AH / 1261 AD), who was a student of Muslim sheikhs. Al-Maqri said that he "was reading with the Muslims and mixing with them."

And they differed about the sincerity of his Islam when he announced it “and praised the Messenger of God - may God’s prayers and peace be upon him - with a long and brilliant poem, Abu Hayyan said: I stood on it and it is one of the most creative in its meaning.”

Some of the great rabbis of Andalusian Jews angered the spread of Arab-Islamic culture among their followers, and their children learned Arabic language and poetry at an early age, and among them was Suleiman bin Gabirol (d. 463 AH/1070 AD), who despaired of the lack of knowledge of many of his Andalusian people in the Hebrew language, unlike The Jews of southern France who mastered Hebrew well.

And according to what was reported by Khaled Younis in his book 'The Jews in the Arab Islamic State in Andalusia';

During the late seventh century AH / thirteenth century AD, the Jewish physician of Saragossa Suleiman bin Yusuf bin Yaqoub expressed his dissatisfaction with the Andalusian Jewish scholars who were writing their responses and books in Arabic - during the fourth and fifth centuries Hijri / the tenth and eleventh century AD - claiming that it was the tongue that everyone understands. Jews.

Early Opposition

The motive of most Jews and Christians to master Arabic and draw on the wellsprings of Islamic culture was either a desire to work in jobs or an admiration for the language of the dominant rulers;

Regardless of the nature of the motive, this influence made - from an early age - some Christian clergymen complain and complain - as happened to their Jewish counterparts - about the influence of their religious followers on the Arab-Islamic culture.

This aforementioned priest, Alvaro Al-Qurtubi, laments - in the document “Indiculus Luminosus” written in the year 240 AH / 854 AD - about the increasing demand of young Christians to learn Arabic; According to the orientalist Palnthia, he says: "My brothers in religion find great pleasure in reading Arab poetry and their stories, and they study the doctrines of the people of religion and Muslim philosophers, not in order to refute and contradict them, but in order to acquire from that a beautiful and correct Arabic style!! And where do you find one now - without Clergy-reading the Latin commentaries that were written on the holy gospels? Who, besides the clergy, is studying the writings of the Apostles and the effects of the prophets and messengers? What a pity!"

Then Alvaro adds, sighing and lamenting the Christian youth who left Latin and mastered Arabic: "The talented young Christians today only know the language and literature of the Arabs, and they believe in it and they are eager to accept it, and they spend huge amounts of money collecting its books, and they declare - everywhere - That these etiquettes are true with admiration, so if you tell them about Christian books, they answer you - in contempt - that they are not worthy of their attention, what pain! As for writing in the language of the Arabs, you find a great number of them who are good at it in an elegant style, rather they compose of Arabic poetry more than the poetry of the Arabs themselves in art and beauty!!

Efforts to confront the Arabization movement among Christian communities in Andalusia were not limited to individual Christian notables;

Rather, organized Christian groups became involved in it, one of which was the “Volunteer Martyrs” movement that appeared in the thirties of the third AH / ninth century AD, and one of its leaders was the monk Eulogius al-Qurtubi (d. 244 AH / 858 AD), but its efforts failed to stem the tide of Arabization and Islamization;

According to Levi Provencal (d. 1376 AH / 1956 AD) in his book 'Arab Civilization in Spain'.

In his previous book, the orientalist Palentia believes that the "Arabist" element was close to dissolving in the Arab element, which can also be clearly understood from the words of Alvaro Al-Qurtubi;

who denounced in astonishment the mastery of the youth of his religion in the Arabic language and Islamic culture and their fascination with Arab poetry, preferring it over what remained of the glorious era of Latin literature in Spain.

no wonder that the Spanish and Portuguese were influenced by the Arab Islamic language and culture was not only because of their admiration for them, but it is also due to what Ibn Khaldun indicated - in the 'Introduction' - that "the defeated are always fond of following the example of the conqueror in his slogan, his dress, his bee and all his conditions and habits .., [for] the soul never believes in perfection in the one who defeats it!!" This is reinforced by them that the Arabic language during the Islamic rule in Andalusia was a dominant global language, as is the case with English today.

This admiration for the culture of the majority of non-Muslim peoples belonging to Islamic geography pushed to learn it, and among those who learned it at the time - along with ministers, writers and philosophers - were Christian kings, priests and rabbis. Among the most prominent Christian kings who were influenced by the Arabic language and culture was King Alfonso X (d. 683 AH / 1284 AD), known as "The Wise" (El Sabio), where he composed works in Latin in which Arab stylistic influences are clearly visible.

And during the reign of this king - as Palencia says - the translation movement from Arabic into Spanish flourished, when he ordered the translation of science books and Arab-Islamic heritage - in literature, physics and astronomy - into Spanish and Latin. Among those translators was “The Blue Plate” by the prominent Andalusian astronomer and geographer Abu Ishaq al-Zarqali (d. 480 AH/1087 AD), whose works had the greatest impact on the scientific renaissance in Europe; According to Luis Teofilugil Cuadrado in his study 'Islamic Influence on Medieval Christian Spanish Culture'.

Among the Christians who have been influenced by the Arabic language and Islamic culture is Bishop Recemundo, known in Arabic sources as Rabi` bin Zaid al-Qurtubi (d. after 350 AH / 961 AD), who was sent by Caliph Abdul Rahman al-Nasir (d. 350 AH / 961 AD) as his ambassador to the German King Otto / Hutu I (d. 362 AH / 973 AD).

He participated with Oraib bin Saad Al-Qurtubi (d. 369 AH / 980 AD) in preparing the Cordoba Calendar for the year 350 AH / 961 AD, which was written in both Latin and Arabic.

Many Christian clergymen also learned the Arabic language and composed it and translated many literary works into it.

Father Vicente transmitted "a set of ecclesiastical laws and decrees... from Latin into Arabic";

According to the orientalist Palenthia, who added that this work was gifted by his translator to a priest named “Abdul-Malik”, and “the expressions of dedication were organized in Arabic verses that do not differ in anything from what Muslims organize in such a place in form and content!!”

Oriental influence

. We also mention the Spanish Arabist Gondisalvo (= Abu Omar Gondisalvo), who lived in the fifth century AH / eleventh century AD. He was a writer, philosopher, and one of the greatest translators in the Toledo School of Translation;

According to Margarita Lopez Gomez in her research 'The Arabists: The Transformation of Islamic Civilization in Andalusia'.

In the field of literature;

Don Juan Manuel (d. 749 AH / 1349 AD), who is the nephew of King Alfonso X, composed a poetic poem written in Arabic letters. He also wrote a short story book entitled: "The Count of Lucanor", which included fifty stories, in which the Arab oriental influences seemed to be prominent because of the influence of Its author is in the book 'Kalila wa Dimna' by Ibn al-Muqaffa (d. 143 AH / 760 AD).

Juan Goytisolo Gay (d. 1438 AH / 2017 AD) - in his book 'On Spanish Orientalism' - sees that "reading everyone who worked on Don Juan Manuel 'Count Lucanor', which was one of his most important works (written between the years 730-735 AH / 1330-1335 AD) , and was composed of five parts.. of a moral nature, thanks to which the work gained great popularity and great importance in Spanish culture, as well as 'The Epic of the Master'; it will help to unveil the impact of the Arab-Islamic perception "on Spanish culture and literature."

On the historical side; We find that in western Andalusia (Portugal), King Dhun Dinesh (d. 725 AH / 1325 AD), nicknamed "O Lavrador", ordered the translation of the book 'News of the Kings of Andalusia' by Ahmed bin Muhammad al-Razi (d. 324 AH / 936 AD) into Portuguese, where he did it. The Christian clergyman Gil Perez (d. 715 AH / 1315 AD) with the help of a Muslim man called "Arif Muhammad", and this version took an exceptional turn at a later time in Iberian history; As Adel Sidros says in 'Arabic words and translations among the Portuguese and the Arabists'.

As for eastern Andalusia; The "Epic of the Master" is considered one of the oldest famous Spanish historical works, as it narrates the exploits of the Castilian hero Rodrigo Dias de Pipar (d. 493 AH / 1099 AD), to whom is attributed the organization of this epic, while the Spanish researcher Dolores Oliver Brith went - in her book 'The Epic of the Master: Arab Origin. And the authorship’ (El Cantar de Mío Cid: génesis y autoría árabe), which was issued in the year 1429 AH / 2008 AD - indicates that the author of this epic is the Arab jurist and poet Abu al-Walid al-Waqshi mentioned above, and she had no doubts that the Castilian “Syd” had asked this writer The Arab should organize for him an epic that perpetuates his effects!!

Folk songs and tales were among the active factors in the movement of the spread of Arab-Islamic culture among non-Muslims in Andalusia, and in the forefront of this comes the poems of Al-Zajal, especially the Azjal of Abu Bakr bin Quzman Al-Qurtubi (d. "He was the first to innovate in this Zalliyyah method... even though it was said before him in Andalusia, but its solutions did not appear, nor did its meanings spill out, nor did its grace become famous except in his time."

Among the manifestations of Arab influence in Spanish Christian literature are the so-called “Romanancero Fronterizo” poems, which were greatly influenced by the Andalusian muwashshah and Zajal, which the Orientalist Balencia sees as “using the vernacular and sometimes mixing Arabic with phrases from the Spanish Romance dialects.”

Literary quote

The Spanish orientalist Ramon Menendez Pedal (d. 1376 AH / 1956 AD) noted the presence of Muslim singers in the Spanish Christian kingdoms who participate in musical activities, and this explains - in the view of the Orientalist Julian Ribera - the relationship between Andalusian rhymed poetry and Castilian singing;

According to what Luis Cuadrado recounts in his above study.

The student of this type of poems - which grew up on the Islamic/Christian borders in Andalusia - will find that it forms the basis of the Spanish-Islamic historical and linguistic duality, as it represents the spirit of the Islamic and Christian religions.

Moreover;

These poems sometimes depict events of conflict and heroism, and highlight a high spirit of tolerance towards the enemy, and even glorify his chivalry and nobility at another stage!

Most of the poems were spread at times when the conflict between Christians and Muslims intensified, as they entered into a fierce war in order to control cities and kingdoms before the fall of Andalusia.

In this context, one of the most famous of these three-way poems comes down, which is “The Poem of Ibn al-Ahmar” (Romance de Abenámar), which was written in 834 AH / 1431 AD and is considered one of the masterpieces of Spanish literature due to its unparalleled attractiveness.

The topic of this poem - about the city of Granada, the last fortress of Islam in Andalusia - revolved between the Spanish King Juan II (d. 858 AH / 1454 AD) and the Nasrid King Abi al-Hajjaj Yusuf Ibn al-Ahmar, nicknamed 'Ibn al-Mawl' (d. 835 AH / 1432 AD), who went to the King of Castile To seek help from his rival, King Muhammad Al-Aasar (d. 858 AH / 1454 AD).

In the poem, Juan II appeals to his ally Ibn al-Ahmar to hand him over the keys to the city of Granada, but the latter strongly rejects this because he is a Muslim who does not betray the trust, and he must fulfill the sweat of the brow of the builders of this great city who excelled in its construction.

But the Spanish king expressed his unbridled desire to annex her due to his great fascination with her, so he began to woo the beautiful Granada and beg her to marry him, but she answered him saying: “I am in the custody of a Muslim, and I cannot betray him while he seeks me great good!!”

And the Spanish "romantic" poetry - which is also called "border songs" - is characterized by being similar to ancient Arab poetry, where we find the Spanish poet usually deals with a group of meanings in his poem, such as glorifying courage and chivalry, crying ruins represented in the lost Andalusian cities, and sympathy with their relatives Andalusians, despite the conflict with them;

As noted by Ramon Menendez Pidal in his book 'The Spanish Romantic.. Theory and History'.

Therefore, the Spanish orientalist Jose Maria Fornias (d. 1424 AH / 2003 AD) decides - in his research 'Border Songs and Arabic Poetry.. New Reflections on Old Assumptions' - that the student of the Spanish Romantic clearly notices the multiplicity of manifestations of Arab influence in terms of form, content, subject matter, weight and rhythm. In his poems, the Spanish poet mixed Arabic and romantic words. As for the composition level, these poets portrayed the city as a beautiful girl, so they courted her, asking for her hand to marry in colloquial Arabic and romantic non-verbal; As in the poem "Son of the Red" referred to.

Multiple channels It is

not surprising that eight centuries of coexistence between two peoples resulted in a kind of influence and influence - despite their varying proportions - with a specific culture and thought, in addition to the intense daily friction that was taking place - peace and war - between Muslims and Christians at the time. Therefore, the Spanish Orientalist Maria Jesus Rubiera (d. 1430 AH / 2009 AD) - in her book "Spanish-Arabic Literature" - believes that the friction was widespread, especially at the borders, mainly through oral communication.

Concerning the influence of Muslims on Christians; move d. Fatima Tatah on the authority of the Spanish researcher, Argoti de Molina, that Muslims did not sing only in colloquial language, but they sang in romance (the Spanish language), and there is no evidence for this in the “Valencian Elegy” by Abu Al-Walid Al-Waqshi (489AH/1096AD). It was held by Dr. Taher Makki (d. 1438 AH / 2017 AD) provided an entire chapter to study this poem in his book 'Andalusian Studies in Literature, History and Philosophy', and said that it "reached us in a funny and unparalleled form in the history of Arabic literature: written in the colloquial language of the people of Andalusia, in Latin letters, and translated from Translate the original into the Castilian language.

However, other researchers deny that the Arab-Islamic side was influenced by Spanish-Christian literature and heritage, and they see only the opposite.

Juan Goytisolo Gay asserts - in his advanced book - that "thanks to the research of Arabists - such as the teacher Asin Platius (d. 1364 AH / 1944 AD) and Levi Provencal - it has become difficult to defend the thesis that Islam has exercised only a transient influence on our culture."

The study of the structure of Andalusian society in those times will discover that all its categories - from the “domesticated” (los mudejares), the Moriscos (los moriscos), and the Muslims who were forced to convert to Christianity in Andalusia after the Inquisition - were - without a doubt - active channels for transmitting Arab culture to Spanish, Through the exchange of poems, tales, proverbs, stories...etc.

The Muslim women - who served in the homes of Christians after the fall of the major Andalusian cities - and the Arab-Islamic stories they told in the homes of Christians;

A pivotal role in the influence of the Spaniards on the Arab language and culture, which inevitably contributed to the quotation of those Christians from the Arab-Islamic culture.

And if these were Muslims, they were brought to serve Christians in their homes and palaces, following the custom of Arab rulers and notables of society whose palaces and homes were filled with Andalusian Christian concubines;

The other side of the picture of Christians being influenced by Arab culture is reflected in the role of these Christian maids who used to work in Muslim homes, where they learned Arabic and its arts and passed them on to their Christian families.

Societal

Moreover, Muslim rulers and princes married Christian women; As was done, for example, by Prince Al-Hakam Al-Mustansir (d. 366 AH / 977 AD), who married the Christian princess “Aurora”, whose name became “Sobah al-Bashkhanish” (d. about 390 AH / 1000 AD and is attributed to the country of the Basques / Basques = the Spanish Basque Country), and by his son, Prince Hisham al-Mu'ayyad (d. 403 AH / 1013 AD), who assumed power after him; According to Ibn Adhari al-Marrakchi (died after 712 AH / 1312 AD) in 'Al-Bayan al-Maghrib fi Akhbar al-Andalus and al-Maghrib'.

There is no doubt that this Christian wife - and her counterparts from the wives of Muslim princes - had an impact on her social environment, starting with her husband and her son, who was said to have learned and mastered Spanish, and ending with her surroundings, which was full of servants, modesty, and maidservants of Jews, Christians and Muslims. Ibn Adhari refers to the marriage of the Umayyad hajib al-Mansur Ibn Abi Amer (d. 392 AH / 1003 AD) to Uraka, the daughter of Sancho II, King of Navarre / Nabara (d. 384 AH / 994 AD), and she bore him Abd al-Rahman, nicknamed "Shangul" (d. 399 AH / 1009 AD). His nickname was derived from the endearing diminutive of his Christian grandfather's name, Sancho.

There are other examples, including Teresa / Teresa, the daughter of the King of Leon Bermuda II (d. 390 AH / 999 AD), which he gifted in 383 AH / 993 AD to Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Amer, who freed her and married her as a sign of the peace treaty between Leon and Cordoba. This event gave an impetus to the multiplication of the “born” generation in Andalusia, and if we look carefully at the translations of Muslim figures in Andalusia, we will find that many names are of Spanish/Latin origin as a result of this mixed marriage, including: Ibn Gothic, Ibn Lub (Lope/Lobo) meaning wolf, and Ibn Pascual, and Ibn Ferro, meaning iron.

Speaking about the impact of Muslims on literature and art; Spanish historian and Arabist Juan Burnett (d. 1432 AH / 2011 AD) says - in the 'Dictionary of the Spanish Language' - that there is an impact of Arabic muwashshahs in Spanish romantic poetry arising from social mixing, because "the channel of communication between Arabs and Spaniards are the 'Arabists' (Los Mozarbes). This name is given to the inhabitants of Spain who accepted... to live under the banner of Islamic rule in Andalusia until the end of the eleventh century AD, while retaining their Christian identities.. and the "Mudéjaris" (Los Mudejares), Muslims who were living under the mercy of Christian rule after the fall of some Andalusian cities, and this category began to appear at the beginning of the fifth century AH corresponding to the eleventh century AD. According to the data of 'The Dictionary of the Spanish Language'.

There is also the category of the Exiles and Exiles (Los Renegados), those Spaniards who refused to submit to certain dictates of the Church, and may be considered apostates from Christianity. Among the members of the latter category, we mention the popular poet García Fernández, who composed “Malaba” (Juglar) or “Zajal Al-Hazal”, with the same meaning of the game as Ibn Khaldun; As attributed by Dr. Fatima Tatah to García Gomez in 'Garcia Gomes, el gran zejil de zarhún'. Perhaps what is meant by this is the hadith of Ibn Khaldun - in the 'Introduction' - about a "play of zajal poetry attributed to some Jews".

We point out here that the word "Juglares" means those romantic poems that were recited by itinerant poets called "El trovador", and they sought, through their tours between cities, to earn their living by reciting them, often accompanied by singing. Ibn Bassam al-Shantarini mentioned - in 'Al-Thakhira' - the muwashahat and said: "They are the weights that the people of Andalusia use a lot for in courtship and kinship, and it is difficult to hear them that are preserved in the pockets, but rather the hearts." Through Ibn Bassam's definition of this, it becomes clear to what extent the people of Andalusia were fascinated and influenced by this new poetic type at the time.

Lexical testimonies

We saw that with the arrival of the Arabs and Muslims to the Iberian Peninsula in the year 92 AH / 711 AD; Officially and realistically, the procedures for adopting the Arabic language were launched as an administrative language in the open areas, and it became the language of the elite and the administration besides being the language of religion and science. In this regard; The Arabists played an important role in transferring a significant number of Arabic vocabulary into the Spanish and Portuguese languages, through the bilingualism of the inhabitants of Andalusia, which was an effective channel in this transfer.

ووفقًا لـ‘معجم الكلمات الإسبانية والبرتغالية المشتقة من العربية‘ للمستشرقيْن رينهارت دوزي (ت 1300هـ/1883م) ووليام إنغلمان (ت 1285هـ/1868م) الصادر سنة 1278هـ/1861م؛ فإن كلمات اللغة البرتغالية من أصل عربي تمثل زهاء 7% من إجمالي مفرداتها، ويُقدر أن هناك حوالي ثلاثة آلاف كلمة برتغالية ذات نَسَب عربي عريق، بما في ذلك المصطلحات النادرة الاستعمال؛ وتغطي آلافُ الكلمات هذه مجالاتِ الحياة كلها تقريبًا، وقد حُرِّف نطق بعضها بينما لا يزال البعض الآخر على حاله.

وبالنسبة للغة الإسبانية؛ فإن تأثير اللغة العربية عليها معجمي بالأساس، ويقدر أن هناك حوالي ألف جذر عربي وقرابة ثلاثة آلاف كلمة مشتقة، ليصبح المجموع نحو أربعة آلاف كلمة أو نسبة 8% من المعجم الإسباني، وهو ثاني أكبر تأثير معجمي في الإسبانية بعد اللاتينية!! فقد وصل استخدام الكلمات العربية في الإسبانية أوْجَه في أواخر العصور الوسطى ثم انخفض منذ ذلك الحين، لكن المئات من الكلمات لا تزال تستخدم في المحادثة العادية، وبعضها مُنح الجنسية الإسبانية لنيله الاعتراف به من معجم الأكاديمية الملكية الإسبانية.

ويؤكد هذا الانتشار المعتبر للكلمات العربية داخل اللغتين الإسبانية والبرتغالية فاعلية التواصل الحضاري (لغويا وعلميًا وثقافيًا ودينيًا ومعماريًا) بين تلك الشعوب على أديم إقليم الأندلس، وكان من الرسوخ بحيث لم ينل من استمراريته -وخاصة في بُعده اللغوي- اقتلاعُ الوجود الإسلامي المادي من البلاد بالحديد والنار والتهجير القسري؛ فقد امتد التأثير اللغوي العربي في اللغة الإسبانية إلى جميع الحقول الدلالية في اللغة الإسبانية، بما في ذلك مجموعة من المفردات الدينية الإسلامية قام برصدها الباحث مصطفى أمادي في عمله المعنون: ‘الكلمات ذات الأصل العربي والمستعملة في المجال الديني الموجودة في قاموس الأكاديمية الملكية الإسبانية‘.

وإذْ أولى المسيحيون القدماء اهتماما بالغا باللغة العربية مما جعلهم يترجمون نصوصهم التشريعية والقانونية إليها؛ فإنه لم يفوّت أيضا المستعربون المعاصرون منهم فرصة تقصِّي مظاهر ذلك التأثير العربي الغني في شتى مناحي الحياة العقلية والعمرانية الإيبيرية، من الأدب الشعبي والفن والمعارف العلمية، والإستراتيجية العسكرية والتقنية البحرية والتنظيم الإداري والمالي، والبناء والزخرفة العمرانية، والصناعة التقليدية والزراعة والأغذية.. إلخ.

وحسبما أوردته الباحثة البرتغالية ماريا جوزيه دي مورا سانتوش في عملها ‘الاستيراد المعجمي والبنية الدلالية: المفردات العربية في اللغة البرتغالية‘؛ فإن من الكلمات التي تسربت في مجال علم النبات مثلا: كلمة الباذنجان (berenjine برينجين)، بلوطة (bolete بوليت)، بطيخة (botica بوتيكا)، حب الملوك (abelmaluco أبيلمالوكو)، الباكورُ بمعنى أول ما ينضج من الثمار (albacora الباكورا)، الحلبة (alforba ألفوربا)، الخروبة (alfaroba الفاروبا)، السبانخ (espinafre إشْپينافري)، الحبق (alfavaca ألفاڤاكا)، النبق (anafega أنافڭا)، سحْلب (ساليپو salipo)، اللبان جاوي (benjoim بينْجْوينْ)، عنبر anbar (أنبر)؛ حسبما أوردته نادية التدلاوي في ‘الكلمات ذات الأصل العربي في علم النبات في اللغة البرتغالية: مقاربة لغوية‘.

وبالنسبة للكلمات العامة التي دخلت إلى البرتغالية جراء التأثير العربي على سكان غربي الأندلس؛ فحسبنا ذكر بعضها للتمثيل فقط نظرا لغزارتها. ومن هذه المفردات: المستعربون (موسارَبْشْ Moçárabes)؛ الإسلام (إِجْلاو Islão)؛ بلاد الكُفر (كافراريَّا cafraria)، وأما كُفَّار فهي (أوُشْ كافْرَشْ os cafres)؛ المطمورة (مسموغَّا Masmorra)؛ جَرّة (جرَّا Jarra)؛ إكسير (إليكسيرElixir)؛ أوْجُ (أوْجْ Auge)؛ الزّهر (أزَارْ Azar).

حضور يومي
إن التأثير اللغوي العربي في الإسبانية -كما سبق القول- يبدو بارزا جدًا في الحقل المعجمي؛ وهنا نجد أن الغالبية العظمى من الكلمات الإسبانية ذات الأصل العربي هي أسماء، مع وجود عدد من الأفعال والصفات المشتقة مباشرة من هذه الأسماء؛ فمثلا نجد من مشتقات لفظ (ألْكِلارْ alquilar: استأجر) و(ألْكلادو alquilado: المستأجر) و(ألْكِليرْ alquiler: الإيجار). كما نلاقي تأثيرا -وإن كان ضئيلا- على البنية النحوية الأساسية للغة الإسبانية.

وبشأن العلامات الإعرابية أو الشكل؛ فقد تحولت في الكلمات الاسبانية ذات الأصل العربي إلى حروف علة، ولم تبق على حالها. وأما جنس الكلمة فإنه أحيانا يختلف؛ فنجد أن كلمةً مذكرةً في العربية تصبح مؤنثة في الإسبانية أو البرتغالية وحتى في اللغات الأوروبية الأخرى، مثل: "بابوج" (= النعل) ذات الأصل الفارسي فهي مذكرة في العربية لكنها مؤنثة في الإسبانية (بابوتْشَا Babucha). كما يمكن أن يقع تغيير على العدد فيصير الجمع مفردا، مثل لفظ "بربر" الذي هو اسم جنس جمعي فإنه عندهم أصبح مفردا (بِريبِرْ Beréber).

ومن الكلمات العربية الأصل المستعملة في الحياة اليومية الإسبانية والبرتغالية نكتفي بذكر ما يلي بالنسبة للبرتغالية: السلام عليكم (سلماليك Salamaleque)؛ أهلاً (أُلاَ olá)؛ الإمام (إِماَ Imã)؛ إن شاء الله (أُشاَلاَّ Oxalá)؛ فُلان (فلانو Fulano)؛ الزَّيت (أزَّاْيتي Azeite)؛ الليمون (ليمْوايْرو Limoeiro)؛ الشقيقة (إنْشكيكَا Enxaqueca)؛ الزمرّد (إزْميرالدا Esmeralda).

وأما المفردات العربية في الإسبانية فنذكر منها تمثيلا: سكر (أثوكر Azúcar)؛ ليمون (لمون Limón)؛ أرُز (Arroz)، مخدَّة (ألموادا Almohada)؛ شطرنج (أخدريث Ajedrez)؛ قيثارة (غيتارَّاGuetarra)؛ ياسمين (خاثمين Jazmín)؛ الحلي (ألْإِلِي Alhelí)؛ القطن (ألْــڭـدونْ Algodón)؛ البرنس (ألبرنوث Albornoz).

كما استعارت الإسبانية بعض التعابير من العربية مع قليل من التحريف في الكتابة والنطق، ومن ذلك عبارات: "واحد بواحد" (ڭواخِتي پورْ ڭواخِتي Guájete Guájete por). أما العبارات التعجبية فنكتفي منها بذكر: والله (ڭـوَلاَ Gualá)، وهلا (ؤُلاَ Hola). كما تأثرت النعوت والصفات بالعربية مثل لفظ بدوي (بِدْوينو Beduino)؛ وتغيرت علاقة بنية بعض الكلمات مثل: "قائم مقام" التي صارت (كِيمَكَانْ Caimacán)، و"بهاء الله" أصبحت كلمة مركبة مشتقة (Bahaísmo).

ويكثر هذا الأمر في أسماء الأماكن والمدن والأعلام كما نلقاه في معجم دوزي وإنغلمان المذكور؛ فنجد مثلا "وادي الحجارة" ينطقونه (ڭـوادَلاخارا Guadalajara)، والقلعة (Alcala)، ومَجْريط (مدريد Madrid). وتجدر الإشارة إلى أن اللغة الإسبانية هي اللغة الأوروبية الوحيدة التي تتوفر على حرف "الثاء" كنتاج للتأثير اللغوي العربي، فمثلا كلمة مسجد بالإسبانية تنطق هكذا (مِـثْكيتا Mezquita)!!

انتشار بالجوار
ولم يقتصر الحضور العربي المعجمي على المجال اللغوي الإيبيري؛ بل تعداه -عبر القرون- إلى جواره الأوروبي شمالا عبر قنوات التواصل الثقافي والتجاري وحتى الحربي، ولذلك فإن المتمعن في المفردات الفرنسية والإنجليزية سيجد أن هاتين اللغتين تدينان بالكثير للغة العربية، التي تسرب منهما إليهما عدد وافر من مفرداتها عن طريق اللغات الإسبانية والبرتغالية والإيطالية، ولا سيما الإسبانية ذات التأثر العظيم بالعربية جراء الوجود الإسلامي الطويل في الأندلس.

فنحن نجد مثلا أن كلمة "أوبيرجيني" (= باذنجان aubergine) قد وصلت إلى الفرنسية عبر مفردة (alberginia) من اللغة الكطلانية شمال شرقي إسبانيا؛ ولفظة "مرفيلْ" (morfil) مرّت عن طريق المفردة الإسبانيّة "مارفيل" (= عاج الفيل marfi). وأما لفظ "ألزانْ" (alezan) فقد أتى من المفردة الإسبانية (ألَثانْ alazán) ذات الأصل العربي وهو لفظ "الحِصان"، لكنه هنا يعني -في الإسبانية والفرنسية معاً- الفرسَ الضارِب لونه إلى الحمرة؛ وفقا للمستشرق ليفي بروفينسال في ‘الحضارة العربية في إسبانيا‘. ومن الأمثلة الأخرى كلمة "ألماثينْ" (= المستودع Almacén) بالإسبانية التي تعود أصولها إلى لفظة "مخزن" العربية.

كما تسربت مجموعة من المفردات من الإيطالية إلى الفرنسية والإنجليزية عبر التفاعل الثقافي والمبادلات التجارية التي كانت قائمة بين المسلمين وسكان جزر البحر الأبيض المتوسط وقتذاك، فكلمة (جِيبْ Jupe) الفرنسية تعود أصولها إلى كلمة "جُبَّة" العربية، أو "الجوب" الذي قال مرتضى الزَّبيدي (ت 1205هـ/1790م) -في ‘تاج العروس‘- إنه "درعٌ للمرأة تلبسها"؛ وقد انتقلت هذه اللفظة إلى الفرنسية بواسطة الإيطالية (جُوبَّا Jupa). ومن الأمثلة الأخرى كلمة ("أڤَلْ" Aval) الفرنسية التي جاءت عن طريق الإيطالية (أڤالُّو Avallo) وتعني بالعربية: كفالة/ضمانة.

وقبل ختام هذا التطواف الموجز في رصد مظاهر التأثير العربي الإسلامي في الحياة الثقافية الإيبيرية؛ فإنه من الأهمية بمكان الإشارة إلى الإسهام الفعال الذي قامت به "مدرسة كوديرا" في الاهتمام بالتراث الأندلسي والأدب العربي فيه، وشغف أعضاء تلك المدرسة العلمية العريقة بسبر أغوار التراث العربي الإسلامي ببلاد الأندلس بموضوعية وحياد، وهذا دليل على مدى التأثير الذي مارسته الثقافة العربية الإسلامية على أهل شبه الجزيرة الإيبيرية، بمن فيهم مؤرخون معاصرون من ذوي المكانة العلمية البارزة الذين تخففوا من أعباء التاريخ وآفات التعصب.

فقد أحب المستشرق الإسباني الكبير فرانسيسكو كوديرا (ت 1336هـ/1917م) العرب واللغة العربية حبا جمًّا، حتى إنه كان -كما يقول الزِّرِكْلي (ت 1396هـ/1976م) في ‘الأعلام‘- يحرص على تعريب صيغة اسمه، فكان يكتب لنفسه "الشيخ فرنسشكه قدارة زيدين"! وأتاح له عمره الطويل وجَلَده العلمي القوي فرصة الغوص في التراث الإسلامي الأندلسي، وتأسيس مدرسة من نجباء تلامذته -الذين عُرفوا بـ"أبناء كوديرا"- كانت عظيمة الحظ في التنقيب والإنصاف والموضوعية.

فقد استخرج تلميذه آسين بلاثيوس أنفس ما جادت به قرائح علماء ومفكري الأندلس، وأعلن فضل تراثهم على أوروبا عامة وإسبانيا خاصة؛ فقال إنه "من الخطأ العمل على أوْرَبة إسبانيا، بل من الواجب تعريب أوروبا، وعلى إسبانيا أن تسترد دورها الأندلسي القديم في هذا التعريب"! حسبما أورده د. مصطفى الشكعة (ت 1432هـ/2011م) في ‘مناهج المستشرقين في الدراسات العربية الإسلامية‘.

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* تنويه: نورد هنا العناوين الأصلية لمصادر أجنبية ذكرناها في المقال بترجمة غير رسمية تسهيلا على القارئ غير الملمّ بلغاتها؛ وهي مرتبة حسب ورودها في النص:

1- Sánchez Albornoz, CI, La España musulmana.
2- Luis Teófilo Gil Cuadrado, la influencia musulmana en la cultura hispano-cristiano medieval.
3- MªFórneas Besteiro, Romances fronterizos y poesía árabe. Nuevas reflexiones sobre viejas hipótesis.
4- Ramón Menéndez Pidal. Romancero Hispánico. Teoría e historia. vol. I.
5- María Jesús Rubiera, la literatura hispano-árabe.
6- Juan Goytisolo, crónicas sarracenas.
7- Diccionario de la lengua española.
8- Adel Sidarus, Arabismo e Traduções Árabes em meios Luso-moçárabes.
9- R. Dozy et W. H. Engelmann, Glossaire des mots espagnols et portugais dérivés de l’arabe.
10- Maria José de Moura, importação lexical eestruturação semântica: os arabismos na língua portuguesa.

11- Nadia Tadlaoui, Os arabismos da botânica na lingua portuguesa: Abordagem lingüística.