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CAYETANA JOHNSON (Minneapolis, 1965) Archaeologist, excavates in Israel since 1996. She is a professor of Hebrew, Aramaic and rabbinical literature at the Ecclesiastical University of San Dámaso in Madrid. We talk to her about the pandemics of old.

In the past, have there been pandemics similar to the one we are experiencing today? Yes, there have been very serious situations from a health point of view. And thanks to the testimony of people who put in writing what they were seeing and living, we can know the causes, symptoms, effects ... Since ancient times, three types of pests were distinguished: bubonic, which attacked the lymphatic system and the lungs and created buboes throughout the body; septicemic, a viral infection produced by contact with an infected animal and in which the virus attacked through the bloodstream, and pneumonia, which was also triggered by having been in contact with contaminated animals, which affected the respiratory system and that it was spread through cough and by air. And how did plagues live in ancient times? In the mind of the ancients, any interference in their lives, and more a disease or a plague, was always interpreted as punishment of the gods. Religion always has a physical imprint on the whole spirit of antiquity, and in fact medicine was always associated with religion. The medicinal practices were intimately connected in origin with some sanctuary, we know it from the Greek god of medicine, Asclepius. And we also have a magnificent goddess in Mesopotamian antiquity, Gluttony, who is the patron saint of medicine. There was the idea that if something bad happened it was because there was some kind of cosmic disorder, because the gods were angry and punished humans for some kind of failure or sin with a pandemic. Authorities have now ordered confinement and containment measures. In order to stop the coronavirus pandemic, in ancient times were measures of some kind taken? The rulers gradually learned to take measures of this type. What was the first pandemic of humanity? The first plague of which we have evidence It is the famous plague of Athens, which was unleashed in the 5th century BC, between 429 and 426 before the Christian era. Thucydides recorded this epidemic in writing, which caught Athens in the Second Peloponnesian War against Sparta and before which the doctors were desperate because they did not know how to treat the sick. And what is the origin of that first epidemic? of humanity? Epidemics and plagues always came through commercial channels. Both in the plague of Athens and in the successive ones there was always transmission by commercial route, through the famous Silk Road or by ships, because navigation in the Mediterranean was intense and there was very fruitful communication between East and West and fluid. For example, it is known that the plague of Athens began in the port of Piraeus. For the citizens of Athens this plague was something terrifying, they immediately interpreted it as divine punishment and many people from the countryside fled to the city, thus making things worse because in the city they were piled up. Is there any calculation of how many people died? It is estimated that up to 100,000 people. It was absolutely catastrophic. And is it known what caused that plague? The only thing we know, from the descriptions of Thucydides, are the symptoms that it caused, quite common to all the plagues of antiquity and that to a large extent also coincide with the pandemic we are living now: fever, sneezing, sore throat, extreme bad breath, violent coughs, chest pain, insomnia and seizures. And in that plague of Athens it was already observed that if a person in contact with the disease did not develop it within a period of between 10 and 15 days, it was considered that they were naturally immunized against it and that this individual was therefore blessed by the gods . In addition, after the epidemic in Athens, a certain awareness began to develop that crowding and crowds were not good. And did people react in solidarity to an epidemic like the one in Athens, or did anyone save themselves? After these 10-15 days they did not develop the disease, they generally helped others, because the concept of community aid was deeply rooted. Although, naturally, there were others who ran away. But the public image of those who stayed, helped others and did not fall ill came out very, very reinforced. Apart from the high cost in lives and health, did this plague in Athens have other effects? That plague caused the death of Pericles and a strong internal weakening of Athens. And since Athens was engulfed in the Second Peloponnesian War, it lost that war against the Spartans. And what was the next great epidemic that struck Europe? The Antonine Plague, which took place in the Roman Empire, between the years 165 and 190 It is known by that name because it took place in the days of the so-called 'five good emperors' (Nerva, Trajano, Adriano, Antonino Pio and Marco Aurelio), all of them belonging to the Antonina dynasty. That plague created a profound devastation, it caught Marco Aurelio, who suffered the disease, and is considered the first great internationalized pandemic, because it affected a large part of the Roman empire, which then had a very extensive extension. We owe Galen, a doctor, almost everything we know about her. Galen was on the ground observing the patients, how they were treated, their symptoms ... And what symptoms did that Antonina epidemic cause? Outbreaks or rashes on the skin, a very severe pharyngitis that made it difficult for patients to swallow, a strong feeling thirsty, coughing, vomiting, and black diarrhea was indicated by intestinal bleeding.And is it known how he got to Rome? It is believed that he got through the Silk Road from the Roman soldiers who were stationed in the Middle East: they became infected and, upon returning to their homes in other parts of the empire, they passed it on. At that time, obviously, there was not the same hygiene that there is now. In addition, at that time it began to be detected that the rats in the boats were transmitters of diseases. This epidemic caused a real debacle in the Roman empire, because it spread wildly and affected the entire empire. At that time the emerging religion, Christianity, was gathering strength. And Marco Aurelio, a very enlightened and generous emperor in the Government, ordered a persecution against the Christians, whom he used as a scapegoat. Do you always look for a culprit when there is a serious epidemic? Yes. It is recurring in all societies and continues until today. But in the case of Marco Aurelio, pointing to the Christians turned against him, because the Christians already in the Roman world showed signs of helping others, of turning to whoever was most in need. During the Antonina plague, Christians were in fact the first to offer to help the sick, while many fled. Much of the Roman population was therefore opposed to the persecution of Christians. Furthermore, in the plague Antonina began to be aware of the importance of social distancing ... Are you saying that in the second century there was already social distancing? Yes, there were already certain protocols of distancing, of separation. In the movie "Ben Hur" you see for example a specific area where lepers live, outside Jerusalem, and that was a common pattern. At that time it was already known that certain diseases were highly contagious, and those who suffered from it were isolated to prevent their spread. Likewise, at that time they already realized that there were people who were immunized: that after having overcome the disease they did not contract it again.And what other measures were taken to try to stop the advance of that plague? In those places where there was a large concentration of people burned entire neighborhoods to try to make the 'bug' causing the plague disappear with fire. And specific burials were also made for those who died from the epidemic. In 2014 in ancient Thebes, in Egypt, a different burial was detected than usual, a collective burial in which the corpses had been covered with lime, and is related to a plague.How many lives did the Antonina plague end? It estimates that it killed up to 50% of the population as a whole, with about five million people. It was devastating and, according to some, it was the beginning of the end of the Roman Empire. In addition, after the Antonina plague, other plagues came, and this weakened the Roman empire more and more. Because the plagues not only caused massive deaths, starting with that of soldiers, essential to maintain borders, but also paralyzed the economy: all trade routes were cut off, many agricultural fields were abandoned ... The shortage of soldiers was such that the Roman empire recruited gladiators and freed many slaves to join the Army. But, even so, there began to be incursions by Germanic tribes. Also, that pandemic had a new outbreak in the 3rd century. A second wave? Yes. It is known as Cipriano's plague because Cipriano, Bishop of Carthage, witnessed it and recorded it. It seems that it originated in the Far East and that, through the Silk Road, it reached Alexandria and from there, by navigation in the Mediterranean, to Rome. It is believed that up to 5,000 people a day died in this pandemic. The best known pests are plague. When did those plagues begin? The next great plague after Antonina was that of Justinian I, on behalf of the great Byzantine emperor; It took place between the years 541 and 542, was caused by Yersinia pestis, was transmitted through rats and is the first witnessed plague epidemic in history. Again it had its origin in the East, it crossed India through the Silk Road and reaches Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. The historian Procopius, biographer of the Emperor Justinian, described very well how this fierce pandemic reached Constantinople, causing fever, fatigue, buboes around the ears and in the lower body, causing the sick to fall into a coma. And, as happened in other pandemics, in this one there was a sharp drop in respect for government institutions and a sharp drop in religiosity. Many wondered what use it was to make sacrifices or burn incense, what use was the Government, the emperor, the senators ... Did the isolation practices continue in this plague? They increased, and the isolation of sick people was reinforced. But even so, it is estimated that the Justinian plague killed 25% of the population. And the famous plagues of this one from the Middle Ages? The best known is the fourteenth-century black plague, which is again bubonic plague. . And it is in this epidemic that the concept of quarantine arises. The plague arose once again in the East and reached the West through trade routes, mainly sea routes. Genoa and Venice, two powers of the Mediterranean, realize that the arrival of ships contributed to spreading the epidemic. And they begin to force the boats with their entire crew to remain in total isolation on the high seas for 40 days, the 'quarantino', to ensure that when the ship later arrived at a port there was no one who could spread the disease. And that practice is also spreading within cities. But there were those who paid bribes to skip the quarantine, so that measure did not prevent the black plague from spreading across Europe at astronomical speed, taking between 30-50% of the European population ahead. in that plague of black plague as a scapegoat? To the Jews. There were very strong persecutions against them.

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